Epistemology

Mill- Went beyond his predecessors by claiming that not only all science, but also all of mathematics is derived from experience. The axioms of geometry and the basic principles of mathematics are all founded on sensory experience. Mill sees the fact that the sum of equals is always an equal as an inductive truth, or a law of nature.

Newman- Belonged to the same empiricist tradition as Mill and disliked the German metaphysics, he described it as “a vain system of words without ideas”. Newman stated that the only direct acquaintance we have with things outside of ourselves is through our senses, so to think we could have “direct knowledge” of immaterial things is just ludicrous. Even our senses don’t allow us to be far out from ourselves e.g. we need to be near things to touch them. We cannot think or act without accepting that some truths aren’t intuitive and are not clearly demonstrated, yet they are still sovereign.
The difference between knowledge and certainty:
Knowledge= if I know “p” then “p” is true.
Certainty= I’m certain of “p” but “p” may still be false.
To be certain of something is to believe that it is true. Anyone who loses certainty off a statement was never really certain of it.

C.S. Pierce- Tried to create an epistemology appropriate for an age of scientific enquiry. Pierce observes that inquiry always originates in doubt and ends in relief, the only object of enquiry is to settle opinion.
4 methods commonly used:
- Tenacity
- Authority
- A priori method
- Scientific method
It is possible for “p” to be true even if every person on earth believes “p” is false.
Belief has 3 properties:
1. Something we are aware of
2. Appeases the irritation of doubt
3. Establishes a habit

Frege- Believed epistemology had been given a place in philosophy when it really should have been assigned to logic. A proposition may be thought of without being true, and a proposition may be true without being thought of. Frege created a doctrine of 2 separate worlds, one interior and private, and the other exterior and public. Physical things in the public world are accessible to all of us , but then there is also the private inner world of sense impressions and ideas. Frege also argued that there must also be a “third realm”, the realm of objective thought.

Russell- What is immediately known in sensation is different from any real object. Sense data are the only things we can be really certain of. What we immediately experience is an inference from what is immediately known. There is no proof that life isn’t just a dream but that doesn’t mean that it’s wrong. Knowledge of what is known by acquaintance is the only way we can have knowledge of things we have never experienced. E.g. how we have knowledge of “Europe” even though it’s too big to be comprehended by the senses.

Wittgenstein – Private language argument- there is no way of identifying terms of consciousness without referring to the public world. Doubt needs ground, genuine doubt will result in a change of someone’s behaviour. In order to express doubt that “p” one must understand what is meant by saying “p”.